Pope Augustus

It was a clear, cloudless day.

Inside the Papal Residence, Augustus stood before a table with his hands clasped behind his back, looking down at the map spread out on it.

Facing this familiar yet strange scene, countless fragments of memory surged from his mind.

It was November 1605, and everything displayed on the map was almost identical to what he remembered.

Italy was still only a geographical concept, with multiple states and the influence of other nations within this region.

The Papal States' territory at this time was not small in the Italian region, occupying Rome, Umbria, Ancona, Urbino, Romagna, and Ferrara, all extremely wealthy areas in Northern Italy.

In addition, the Papal States also had an exclave in France (a piece of land belonging to an administrative division but not contiguous with its main territory)—Avignon, which involved a regrettable past for the Papal States, historically known as the "Avignon Captivity."

Besides the Papal States, there were several other powers, large and small, in the Italian region; however, the local Italian states occupied only about half of the land area.

Venice was undoubtedly the strongest Italian state.

It held Venice, Treviso, Verona, Brescia, and Friuli, and had also preserved Corfu and Crete, the last remaining strongholds against the Ottoman offensive.

Although this commercial republic had been in decline for nearly a century, suffering repeated military defeats and territorial losses, its strength, especially its naval power, was still not to be underestimated.

Further down the line, the only states that could be considered medium-sized were Tuscany, Genoa, and Savoy.

Tuscany was the territory of the Medici Family; through the efforts of several generations, the Medici Family had transformed the Republic of Florence into a hereditary Grand Duchy and expanded it to its current size.

The Grand Duke of Tuscany currently in power, Ferdinando I de' Medici, was the third Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Genoa had been completely expelled from the Black Sea coast, and its presence had greatly diminished; calling it a medium-sized state was a stretch.

It is worth mentioning that Napoleon's hometown, Corsica, was currently Genoese territory.

If viewed from a geographical perspective, some people saying Napoleon was Italian seemed to have nothing wrong with it.

Savoy's geographical location was very precarious, right next to France; the French had never treated Savoy as an outsider, and historically, this land had been repeatedly trampled by French armies countless times, with Savoy's ultimate fate also being France.

The remaining sovereign states in the Italian region truly had no sense of presence: Lucca, Parma, Modena, Mantua, and the Knights Hospitaller who had relocated to Malta, were merely ephemeral states, whose names most people in later generations would not even remember.

The rest of Italy's land was in Spain's hands.

This included Naples, including Sicily, with only the island of Malta excluded from the entirety of Southern Italy, and the entire Duchy of Milan in Northern Italy.

From 1516, Spain was under the rule of the Habsburg Dynasty until the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701.

Spain was very adept at intermarriage and inheritance, benefiting greatly from the Iberian wedding and the death of Charles the Bold (the Burgundian fracture), transforming from a small peninsula state into a major European power.

At the same time, Spain also developed vast colonies, gaining claims to large colonial territories west of the Papal Meridian, with the east going to Portugal.

The Aztec Empire, the Inca Empire, and many other American tribes all fell under Spain's powerful ships and cannons.

By the mid-16th century, Spain's colonies in the Americas included Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay, and were still expanding.

After Spain became Habsburg, its capabilities in some areas further improved.

In 1580, the Portuguese royal family became extinct, and Philip II decisively attacked, taking on the Portuguese crown and uniting these two great maritime empires, with its power at its zenith; it thus became the first true "empire on which the sun never sets," reaching its territorial peak.

But beneath the glorious surface, internal currents surged within Spain; endless wars led the country to its first bankruptcy in 1575, and rigid religious principles made religious conflicts sharper day by day.

One problem that was already in the open was the ongoing, raging Netherlands Revolution.

From the perspective of a revolution, this was the world's first successful bourgeois revolution.

From the perspective of the Dutch War of Independence, it was also called the Eighty Years' War.

This war began in 1568 and did not officially achieve independence from the Spanish Empire until 1648, establishing the "Dutch Republic."

Although the 12-year truce signed between the Netherlands and the Spanish Empire in 1609 made the war seem less continuous, these two parts cannot be separated.

Books say that this war concerned the freedom and happiness of the Netherlands people, and therefore they had enough patience and enthusiasm to carry the war to the end.

This was probably true, and time would prove it.

The Netherlands Revolution received strong support from countries like England and France, which was certainly not for love and peace, but purely to weaken Spain.

In fact, they themselves also had interests and even territorial claims over the Netherlands; the Anglo-Dutch Wars and Franco-Dutch Wars after the Netherlands' independence are clear evidence.

Although Spain nominally retained sovereignty over the Netherlands for a long time to come, this former major source of Spanish revenue had become a huge economic and military burden for Spain.

Spain needed to invest vast wealth and troops to maintain its rule in the Netherlands region; according to unreliable sources, Spain at one point had as many as 68,000 troops in the Netherlands.

The "Sea Beggars" and "Forest Beggars" of the Netherlands revolutionary army adopted guerrilla tactics, often leaving the imperial army without a foothold, disorienting their opponents.

At the same time, they moved like the wind; when the enemy's strength was too great and they knew they couldn't win, they would go to Northern Germany or other places to rest, and then return when the time was right.

During the War of Independence, the Netherlands also actively developed overseas colonies and achieved astonishing success in a very short period, earning the title of "Sea Coachman" in the 17th century.

In 1588, Philip II intended to invade England and replace Elizabeth I with a Catholic monarch.

He assembled an invincible armada of approximately 130 ships, including 8,000 soldiers and 18,000 sailors.

But the Armada was defeated in the Battle of Gravelines and was forced to sail north, where it encountered severe stormy weather near Scotland, suffering heavy losses.

The defeat of the Armada allowed the English to persist in privateering against Spain, continue to send troops to aid the Netherlands and France, and caused Spain to temporarily lose its naval supremacy.

In the 1591 Battle of Flores, England was defeated by Spain, the valiant general Grenville was killed, and the battle-hardened "Revenge" sank.

This battle marked the revival of Spanish naval power.

It also proved that England's chances of capturing and defeating the Spanish treasure fleet were now distant.

Between 1585 and 1604, the Spanish Armada's four expeditions ended fruitlessly, and England's four expeditions against Spain also failed.

The mutual expeditions between England and Spain almost amounted to loading their respective elites onto ships to feed the fish, causing huge losses to both sides, and ultimately a truce was signed in 1604.

Spain's naval hegemony was maintained, and it remained the number one power in Europe and even the world.

On the other side of the Pyrenees Mountains, which separate the Iberian Peninsula, lies the renowned France, a devout Catholic nation.

In 1303, King Philip IV of France fell out with the Pope. The French army stormed the Papal residence, captured the Pope, imprisoned him in a dark cell, and subjected him to humiliation and torture until his death. Then, they coerced the Holy See into electing the Frenchman Clement V as Pope, and in 1309, moved the Papal States to Avignon in southern France. This event is known as the "Avignon Captivity." The Papal States' exclave of Avignon originated from this period and continued until the French Revolution.

The Knights Templar, one of the three major knightly orders, retreated after the demise of the Crusader States in the Mediterranean and were primarily active in France. With no wars to fight, they engaged in finance, becoming incredibly wealthy at the time.

It was still Philip IV who, owing a large sum to the Knights Templar and coveting their wealth, suddenly ordered the arrest of the Knights Templar in 1307. The Knights Templar were caught off guard, and a total of 2,000 people across France were imprisoned, almost wiping them out. The Pope, imprisoned in Avignon, was forced to comply with Philip IV, sacrificing the Knights Templar.

In 1536, to counter the rise of the Habsburg Dynasty, France, as an old Catholic power, went against the entire Christian world by allying with the Ottoman Empire, an enemy of Christendom.

This alliance was denounced by the Habsburg Dynasty as a "sacrilegious alliance" and strongly condemned by various nations. However, based on the principle of pragmatic diplomacy, this alliance was exceptionally strong, lasting for over two and a half centuries. In fact, since the time of Charlemagne, France had cooperated with infidels multiple times.

The Thirty Years' War, also known as the Religious War, which began in 1618, erupted due to the sharp conflict between Protestants and Catholics within the Holy Roman Empire. Subsequently, major European countries became involved, leading to the first all-European war in history.

The two sides of the Thirty Years' War were the Catholic camp and the Protestant camp. The Ottoman Empire and Russia, neither of which belonged to either camp, supported the Protestant side, which was quite normal.

Still aiming to curb the Habsburg Dynasty, France, a Catholic nation, surprisingly joined the Protestant camp in the Thirty Years' War. From the beginning, it provided aid to the Protestant alliance, and ultimately, directly entered the fray as the last line of defense for the Protestant alliance, delivering the final blow to the Catholic camp.

Other actions taken by France include: Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, during which he incidentally destroyed the Knights Hospitaller of Malta, and in 1809, he confiscated the properties of the already defunct Teutonic Knights within Germany, leading to their complete decline (the Teutonic Knights, as an organization, continued to exist after their secularization into the Duchy of Prussia).

Since then, all three major knightly orders were dealt with by France, earning France another nickname: the Knight Order Killer.

Of course, France has done more than just this. With this series of unprecedented and unparalleled actions, France naturally gained renown throughout Europe as a devout Catholic nation.

But no matter what, France is ultimately a great power, a very powerful one, at least before it became known for its white flags.

The era of the Sun King Louis XIV and the Napoleonic era were the glorious moments for the French, when they punched Britain, kicked Germany, sneezed at Russia, sat on Spain, and stumbled to stun the Ottoman Empire. Augustus clearly understands when to call it the French Demon or the French Lord.

The current King of France, Henry IV, is the first king of the Bourbon Dynasty. Historically, he is highly regarded, praised as Good King Henry, and posthumously known as Henry the Great. This is a genuine evaluation by others, unlike Louis XIV, who self-proclaimed himself the Sun King.

Henry IV is a rare king in French history whose character and achievements were both perfect. After a long period of chaos, he re-established a unified and thriving France.

Henry IV was originally a Huguenot. In 1572, he became King of Navarre. From his youth, he was involved in the Huguenot Wars, which began in 1562 and were instigated by Catholic hardliners within France.

With his excellent military talent and ability to exploit enemy divisions, Henry IV became the leader of the Protestant side, accumulating high prestige thereafter.

After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, Henry IV was placed under house arrest in the French court, under the protection of King Charles IX of France. With internal and external troubles plaguing France, several monarchs and heirs died in succession. In 1594, Henry IV was crowned King of France due to his strong claim to the French throne and his prestige, thus beginning the Bourbon Dynasty of France.

Considering that France was still a predominantly Catholic country, Henry IV announced his conversion to Catholicism a year before his coronation. Five years later, he issued the "Edict of Nantes," declaring Catholicism the state religion while granting full freedom of worship to Protestants, demonstrating a rare spirit of religious tolerance for that era. This ended over 30 years of the Huguenot Wars and greatly won over the people.

Henry IV is remembered for his famous saying, "A chicken in every French peasant's pot," and he indeed achieved good results in economic recovery. He appointed Sully to reorganize state finances, with significant success.

After years of reform, the French economy improved, and the lives of ordinary people truly got much better than before; they could generally eat chicken meat on a regular basis. From then on, the French began to treat weekends with chicken as a holiday.

However, such a French king, deeply loved by his people, historically died in 1610 from an assassination by a fanatical Catholic. His son, Louis XIII, then took the stage. Augustus does not know how this will be rewritten, but he is certain that Henry IV could never be his lifelong enemy.

It is worth mentioning that Henry IV's former mother-in-law and current wife both belonged to the Medici Family. Henry IV's success and his successive marriages were somewhat related.

Henry IV's current wife, Marie de' Medici, is the biological mother of Louis XIII and the grandmother of the Sun King Louis XIV. The reason Henry IV married Marie is somewhat amusing: Henry IV owed Marie's father, Grand Duke of Tuscany Francesco de' Medici, a staggering debt of 1,174,000 écus, and marrying Marie was the only way Henry found to repay the debt.

After Henry IV's death, Marie served as regent due to Louis XIII's young age, but Marie's competence was so poor that she was almost overthrown. Later, after some twists and turns, the famous Cardinal Richelieu ascended the political stage.

Although Richelieu's initial status was that of a Cardinal, he prioritized France's national interests and never allowed religious sentiments to influence his foreign policy. From the perspective of France's national interests, he did not view the Protestant nations as primary enemies, but rather considered the Catholic Habsburg monarchy as the most dangerous enemy. France's siding with the Protestant camp in the Thirty Years' War was entirely his brainchild.

Richelieu dedicated his life to the rise of France. He was the founder of French absolutism, a great reformer who transformed France into a modern state, and the pioneer of modern pragmatic, self-serving diplomacy, hailed by the West as the father of modern diplomacy.

Richelieu's achievements and influence on later generations extend far beyond this. Richelieu himself was very complex, and history cannot adequately summarize this influential figure in a few words; he is both praised and criticized, though most of the criticisms are somewhat biased. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Richelieu was undeniably a genius.

Across the strait, England, at this time, was not yet called Great Britain.

The formal merger of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain was an event of 1707.

Currently, Scotland existed under English rule as a united kingdom, and Ireland was also fragmented, with England controlling some of its regions.

England had also just undergone a dynastic change; the Glorious Queen Elizabeth I, the last Queen of England and Ireland of the Tudor dynasty, passed away in 1603.

Upon her death, Elizabeth I passed the throne to James, who later became King James I of England, and the Stuart dynasty began its rule over Britain.

Compared to the bloody War of the Roses between the Houses of Lancaster and York over two hundred years prior, this transfer of power was much smoother.

Although Elizabeth I had executed her cousin, Mary Stuart, the mother of James I, for treason, she ultimately passed the throne to James I.

Unlike monarchs who died suddenly without heirs, leading to succession disputes, this dynastic change had a designated heir and was anticipated by many.

The reason was simple: Elizabeth I never married.

Because of this, she was also known as the "Virgin Queen."

Never marrying meant she dedicated her entire life to the country, making her a good queen for the British people.

Many of the praises heaped upon her stemmed from this, lacking logic or persuasiveness, though they themselves probably believed it deeply.

If their "Virgin Queen," on her deathbed, had suddenly told them she had a son and wanted him to inherit the throne, their expressions would surely have been a sight to behold, their faith shattered, and the country likely plunged into chaos.

In British history, Elizabeth I is revered as a great monarch, not merely because she was truly sagacious, but because there were so few reliable English kings.

The contrast made Elizabeth I appear exceptionally great.

Undeniably, Elizabeth I had achievements.

At the beginning of her reign, she successfully maintained the unity of England.

After nearly half a century of rule, she made England one of the most powerful countries in Europe.

English culture reached a peak during this period, with famous figures such as Shakespeare and Francis Bacon emerging.

British colonies in North America began to be established during this period.

Trade relations with the Mediterranean region were restored, and trade with Eastern countries like India was opened.

Several regional monopolistic commercial groups went to Africa to engage in unequal trade plunder.

In addition, there were some measures whose effects were not visible at the time but had far-reaching implications.

However, during Elizabeth I's reign, many problems also arose: the deteriorating situation of the protracted Anglo-Spanish War, the Irish crisis, the Earl of Essex's rebellion, agricultural failures and famine, the parliamentary storm against monopolies, the unsound local government and corruption of central bureaucracy, poverty among the lower social strata, and displaced vagrants.

To English enthusiasts, these experiences of England seemed like tests from God for Britain, necessary trials for Britain's path to strength, and had nothing to do with the wise Queen.

In fact, whether these events were natural disasters or human-made calamities was clear at a glance.

To put it negatively, during Elizabeth I's reign, even the most basic task of safeguarding the country and its people was not achieved.

Externally, continuous wars with Spain were costly and yielded little, plunging the country into financial crisis, eventually ending inconclusively.

If not for the natural barrier of the ocean, there was even a risk of national collapse.

Internally, there were even more blunders.

Her indecisiveness on religious issues and the extremely incomplete religious reforms led to intermittent outbreaks of religious problems.

One day, the Catholic wanted to restore, the next, the Puritans wanted further reforms, constantly depleting national strength and digging a big pit for her successors.

She encouraged the enclosure movement, enacted bloody legislation persecuting landless farmers, the Statute of Artificers, and the Poor Laws, exacerbating the continuous resistance of urban and rural populations, and laying hidden dangers for the future.

In the worsening situation in Ireland, she condoned the atrocities of her favorite minister, the Earl of Essex, further escalating the conflict in Ireland.

After the Nine Years' War, which consumed immense human and material resources to suppress the Irish rebellion, a scorched-earth policy was adopted.

If an Irishman was suspected of participating in resistance, his entire family would be killed, and the English army would burn fields and destroy farms, creating an unprecedented man-made famine.

The brutality of this war caused the Irish hatred, hostility, and distrust towards the English to persist for centuries, digging another pit that spanned several centuries.

Implementing a scorched-earth policy on one's own land after a war is simply too imaginative.

The current English king, James I, is also a bit of an idiot.

Because he had previously ruled absolutist Scotland, he did not understand the English Parliament and looked down on the House of Commons.

During his reign, he advocated the divine right of kings, considering himself God's messenger, whom no one could offend.

Just a few days ago, James I narrowly escaped assassination.

A group of desperate English Catholic country folk wanted to wipe out Parliament.

James I was inspecting the Houses of Parliament that day.

He had decided to convene Parliament on November 5th, grew suspicious, and sent someone to investigate, indeed discovering 40 barrels of gunpowder and catching Guy Fawkes preparing to ignite it.

Under severe torture, Guy Fawkes confessed to ten people involved in the conspiracy.

These ten people were later brutally tortured to death by James I.

This is the famous "Gunpowder Plot."

Modern Britain's annual "Bonfire Night" on November 5th stems from this.

This assassination attempt was not because James I had done anything outrageous; it was a lingering religious issue, simply because James refused to grant Catholic equal rights.

Those who wanted to restore the Catholic in England intended to spark a rebellion by killing him, thereby allowing his daughter Elizabeth of Bohemia to ascend and become a Catholic head of state.

Although James I was largely ineffective in many aspects, he still had some achievements.

And he was able to achieve these precisely because of his incompetence and inaction.

This seems somewhat absurd, but it has a touch of the philosophy of "governing by non-action."

At that time, the British parliamentary system had a characteristic: if you don't do things, someone else will; if you're a fool, someone else isn't; if the country collapses, everyone collapses together.

While the British Isles were unified by his bloodline, they lacked unified social conditions; England, Scotland, and Ireland were in a state of high ethnic, cultural, and religious division and opposition.

However, James I's usual measures of compromise and concession managed to maintain over twenty years of stability despite the high internal opposition within the kingdom, which can be considered an achievement, even if it greatly disadvantaged his son.

James I also had a virtue: he loved peace.

Of course, from the opposite perspective, it could also be seen as content with the status quo, lacking ambition.

At that time, the monarchs and prime ministers of continental Europe, who seemed to thrive on chaos, repeatedly tried to entice Britain to join continental wars, but James I remained unmoved and refused to participate.

Why did James I refuse to participate in the continental wars?

His courtiers, who believed he loved peace, fawningly praised him as the "British Solomon," while European diplomats, who thought him timid, half-mockingly called him "Europe's wisest fool."

But the fact that British society prospered by avoiding the ravages of war is undeniable.

From this perspective, a monarch who wants to do nothing is much safer than one who wants to do everything, both for their own country and for other countries.

The Britain of today does not yet possess the might of later eras; projecting power into the Italian region is a fantasy.

If Spain blockades the Strait of Gibraltar, Britain either cannot enter or can enter but not exit.

Objectively lacking the conditions to interfere in Italian affairs and subjectively unwilling to fight, Britain is not a concern for at least twenty years.

Denmark and Sweden, both in Northern Europe, face each other across the sea. In 1524, the Kalmar Union dissolved, and this Northern European behemoth, which had dominated the Baltic Sea for over a century, split into two.

The establishment of the Kalmar Union was thanks to a powerful woman, Margaret I. She was one of the most important figures in the Middle Ages, and also one of the greatest women in world history, dedicating her life to unifying the Nordic countries.

Margaret was the youngest daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark. She had five older brothers and sisters, but only she, her brother Christopher, and her sister Ingeborg survived.

Her brother was made crown prince, and her sister married the Duke of Mecklenburg. Margaret, at the age of 10, married Prince Haakon of Norway.

Prince Haakon's father was King Magnus of Sweden. King Magnus's maternal grandfather was the King of Norway, and after his maternal grandfather's death, King Magnus also inherited the Norwegian throne. Thus, he was both King of Norway and King of Sweden. Later, he gave the Norwegian throne to Haakon, making Margaret the Princess of Norway and Sweden.

At 17, Margaret gave birth to a son, Prince Olav. In 1375, King Valdemar IV of Denmark passed away. Due to Valdemar IV's defeat in a war against the Hanseatic League, he was forced to sign a peace treaty promising to pass the throne to Albert, the son of the Duke of Mecklenburg Albert and his eldest daughter Ingeborg, with no one else having the right to become King of Denmark.

However, immediately after Valdemar IV's death, the 22-year-old Margaret rushed back to Copenhagen with her child. With her quick wit and various stratagems, Margaret bribed the Danish nobility, excluding her sister's son and placing her own son, Olav, on the Danish throne. Olav was only 6 years old when he ascended, and Margaret became regent, wielding actual power in Denmark.

In 1380, her husband, King Haakon VI of Norway, died, and Olav also inherited the Norwegian throne. Thus, Margaret became the de facto ruler of both Denmark and Norway.

As a ruler, she combined firmness with gentleness, valuing both power and wisdom. She understood the importance of strength; to conquer enemies, she was ruthless and killed without mercy; but she also knew how to win people's hearts. Over the next few decades, she not only governed the country in an orderly manner but also earned the profound admiration of the nobility.

The ambitious Margaret was not satisfied with this and still aimed to occupy Sweden, forming the three countries into a unified nation. For this, she poured all her efforts into raising her son. However, in 1387, the 17-year-old Olav suddenly died, which was a heavy blow to Margaret.

This not only thwarted her plan to unify the three Scandinavian countries but also cast doubt on the legitimacy of her rule over the existing two countries.

Just as she was at a loss, influential religious and political leaders in Denmark, to prevent the Danish monarchy from falling into the hands of Albert, who had German blood, nominated Margaret as Denmark's "Plenipotentiary Ruler and Guardian." From then on, though Margaret did not have the formal title of Queen, she became the de facto Queen of Denmark.

After Margaret gained control of Denmark and Norway, she once again turned her attention to Sweden. The situation in Sweden also presented her with an opportunity.

Her father-in-law, the King of Sweden, had designated his eldest son as the heir to the throne, but the prince, at 17, impatiently forced his father to abdicate. As a result, he only ruled for two years before being defeated by the combined forces of his younger brother Haakon (King of Norway, Margaret's husband) and Haakon's father-in-law (King of Denmark, Margaret's father). Haakon then became the King of Sweden-Norway.

Haakon was King of Sweden for only two years before being overthrown by his cousin Albert of Mecklenburg. Albert attempted "reforms," which alarmed the nobility, who felt threatened. In 1388, the nobility sought aid from Queen Margaret of Denmark-Norway. Queen Margaret led a large army to decisively defeat Albert and was welcomed by the Swedish nobility as the legitimate monarch of Sweden.

However, Albert insisted on not relinquishing power, so Margaret had to engage him in battle again. She spent seven years fighting Albert for Stockholm, eventually defeating and capturing Albert and his son. Later, she exchanged their release for control over Sweden and was acclaimed as the King of Sweden. At this point, Margaret became the Queen of the three countries.

To ensure the eternal preservation of the three-country alliance, Margaret began to consider the issue of her successor and ultimately chose her sister Ingeborg's grandson. Margaret adopted him, changed his original Slavic name, and called him Eric. Margaret diligently trained Eric and worked to persuade the representatives of the power structures of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (name withheld) to elect Eric as her successor.

In 1397, representatives from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden gathered in Kalmar, a coastal city in southeastern Sweden, to formally establish the "Kalmar Union." The representatives of the three countries declared their allegiance to Margaret, enthroned the 16-year-old Eric as the monarch of the three-country alliance, and crowned him. Margaret, meanwhile, remained in the position of regent until her death from the Black Death in 1412.

Thereafter, Eric continued the Queen's policies, but his capabilities were far inferior. He focused on only two things: militarily confronting Germany and establishing a unified autocratic monarchy for the three countries. Ultimately, he was deposed by the nobility who rebelled because he infringed upon their interests. In the end, he granted himself a large pension and abdicated to Gotland to become a pirate. But the Kalmar Union was not affected; it merely changed kings.

The Treaty of Kalmar stipulated that the three kingdoms would jointly support the same monarch, establishing an eternal union. This monarch had to be chosen from among the sons of the deceased monarch. Although the countries formed a union, they retained their individual kingdom status, and their internal affairs remained independent, governed by local councils according to existing laws. However, foreign and defense affairs were overseen by the common monarch.

The alliance of the three countries placed the entire Northern European region under the rule of one king, which was beneficial for the Nordic countries to counter the Hanseatic League's trade monopoly in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea.

The Swedes were displeased that the Danes frequently strengthened ties with Schleswig, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania in the German region, as Sweden's economy at the time was primarily based on exporting iron to the European continent.

At the beginning of the Union's establishment, Margaret I's conciliatory approach earned the Danish royal family the support of the nobility of all countries, but later, the Danish royal family continuously tried to control the internal affairs of Norway and Sweden, leading to disunity within the Union.

Firstly, frequent wars affected Sweden's income, and secondly, the centralized government dominated by Denmark aroused suspicion among the Swedes. Therefore, the Swedish Privy Council demanded that the government maintain a considerable degree of autonomy. During the Union period, the King of Denmark could not always simultaneously serve as the regent or King of Sweden; the actual ruler of Sweden was often a regent chosen from among its own nobility.

To break the Hanseatic League's dominance over Baltic Sea trade and continue external expansion, Denmark, after long wars, annexed Schleswig and Holstein of Germany. By the late 15th century, the conflict between the Danish royal family and the Swedish nobility intensified, and anti-Union conflicts continuously erupted.

Countless historical events prove that no matter how powerful ancestors were, their descendants could still squander their inheritance, and Denmark was certainly no exception.

In 1520, Christian II personally led a large army to capture Stockholm, the Swedish capital, which was occupied by Swedish separatists.

He then massacred a large number of rebellious Swedish nobles, an event known as the "Stockholm Bloodbath." This incident triggered the Dala Rebellion.

In 1521, the Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa re-recruited an army to resist Denmark in Dalarna province.

In 1523, with the help of the Hanseatic League, Gustav Vasa recaptured Stockholm, defeated the Danish occupying forces, and was elected King of Sweden, establishing the Vasa Dynasty, known as Gustav I.

To consolidate his rule and overcome financial difficulties, Gustav I adopted the following measures:

He brutally suppressed uprisings, including but not limited to dismembering rebel leaders, abolishing their fiefdoms and benefices, and dispatching officials to local areas to report directly to the central government.

In 1527, he appointed Lutheran clerics to carry out religious reforms, confiscating church lands and castles, and disbanding church armies.

Later, because the church officials he appointed caused trouble, he almost had them all executed.

In 1544, he declared the abolition of the elective monarchy, replacing it with a hereditary system.

Before his death, two-thirds of the country's land was directly owned by the Crown, laying the foundation for the development of Swedish feudal absolutism and its dominance in the Baltic Sea region.

During the era of Gustav I, the Kalmar Union was officially abolished.

In 1523, Christian II was deposed from the Danish throne by rebellious nobles; Gustav astutely allied himself with Frederick I, the new king supported by the nobles.

After a brutal struggle, Christian II was defeated and captured, eventually dying tragically in prison.

In 1541, Gustav I allied with the King of Denmark, ending Sweden's long-standing vassalage to the Hanseatic League.

At the same time, he actively promoted his country's commercial development, quickly becoming one of the wealthiest monarchs in Europe.

Gustav I reigned for 37 years, but after his death, trouble arose within his own family.

His three sons fought among themselves for decades before his grandson, Gustavus Adolphus II, ascended to the throne, resulting in three different kings.

By the time Gustavus Adolphus II was crowned, the country was impoverished.

After Sweden regained its independence, the Kalmar Union had already disintegrated, but Denmark and Norway still maintained their allied state.

In 1534, Norway's status as a kingdom was abolished, and it was reduced to a Danish province.

Only Denmark and Sweden remained as two countries on the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Having lost Sweden, Denmark was like a tiger without its claws and teeth, essentially kicked off the list of great powers.

Therefore, after the disintegration of the Kalmar Union, Denmark had always been committed to restoring the Kalmar Union and bringing Sweden back under its control.

However, this was easier said than done; fighting and stopping, winning and losing, ceding and reclaiming territory back and forth, only intensified hatred, and the result was completely contrary to the original intention of restoring the Kalmar Union.

Similarly, Sweden could not be friendly towards Denmark.

Denmark's appetite was for all of Sweden, and who could tolerate that?

Moreover, the three-nation alliance that was agreed upon had dissolved, so how could Norway be swallowed by Denmark so inexplicably? Even if it were to be swallowed, shouldn't Sweden get a share?

The territorial distribution of Sweden and Denmark on the map also did not look like they could coexist peacefully.

Parting amicably was impossible; once the family split, they became enemies.

Denmark wanted to return to its era as the Nordic hegemon, which required Sweden to rejoin the Kalmar Union, while Sweden wanted to challenge Denmark to become the Nordic hegemon.

Thus, fighting between the two countries became commonplace.

After the dissolution of the Kalmar Union, both Denmark and Sweden had poor geopolitical environments, with several neighboring countries being sworn enemies, and none of them were easy to deal with.

While the Kalmar Union still existed, Denmark fought with Northern Germany and the Hanseatic League for a hundred years before barely securing Schleswig and Holstein.

To advance south, Denmark, without Sweden, could barely make any progress; it was already difficult to maintain its gains.

Precisely because of this, Denmark did not have too many choices, and for external expansion, Sweden was naturally the primary target.

Sweden's situation was much worse than Denmark's: to the west, Denmark, of the same origin, would eat, sleep, and fight Sweden.

To the east, Russia, always having a good appetite, would rather devour Sweden raw than spit out half a bone.

To the south, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth also claimed the Swedish throne and coveted Sweden's Estonia region.

Currently, the war for this region was ongoing and was expected to remain in a stalemate for several more years.

As for allies, they were truly difficult to find; allies capable of contending with Sweden's current opponents were far away, and small nation allies were not very useful.

Moreover, allying with Sweden, whose current situation was quite unclear, clearly had more disadvantages than advantages.

Of course, having allies or aid was not impossible, as long as Sweden was strong enough, England, France, and the Netherlands were all potential allies.

The precondition was to break free from the current situation and fully demonstrate its strategic value.

For example: repeatedly repelling Denmark, consolidating Swedish sovereignty, and establishing Sweden's position as the Baltic Sea hegemon.

Then, defeating Russia, forcing it to cede the Gulf of Finland outlet and surrounding areas, connecting with Estonia, and blocking the Russians out of the Baltic Sea.

Next, defeating the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, forcing it to abandon its claim to the Swedish throne, and ceding the Livonia region.

Finally, joining the Thirty Years' War as the leader of the Protestant cause, severely damaging the Holy Roman Empire's Catholic alliance.

This was not a joke; Gustavus Adolphus II truly achieved all of this, and he did it exceptionally well, transforming Sweden from a second-rate country into a Nordic hegemon and a powerful European nation.

Gustavus Adolphus II also became Sweden's one and only great emperor; this 'one' does not mean first, but unique—Sweden's only great emperor.

Even more renowned than the title of Great Emperor were his nicknames, the 'Lion of the North' and the 'Father of Modern Warfare,' among other accolades.

Gustavus Adolphus II was born in 1594 and crowned king at the age of 17.

He unfortunately died in battle at Lützen at the age of 38.

His youthfulness and early demise are deeply regrettable, even among his enemies, with few exceptions.

The life of Gustavus Adolphus II was short and glorious, shining like a meteor piercing through the night.

In his youth, Gustavus Adolphus II traveled incognito across Europe as Captain Gars, for the purpose of studying and conducting staff tours in potential allied and enemy countries.

He already possessed strong abilities at the beginning of his reign.

After his coronation, Gustavus Adolphus II appointed his good friend, the administrative expert, Count Axel Oxenstierna, who was only in his twenties, as Lord High Chancellor.

He was one of the most outstanding statesmen in Swedish history.

He was responsible for overseeing government affairs, while Gustavus Adolphus II devoted more time to his military strengths.

The two worked together in perfect harmony, a classic "monarch-minister golden partnership" in world history.

After Gustavus Adolphus II died in battle, the Chancellor continued to assist his daughter, Queen Christina, serving her with utmost devotion.

Gustavus Adolphus II's military reforms pioneered the "professionalization," "regularization," and "modernization" of the military.

He was the first to create the wedge formation and was the earliest in Europe to adopt linear tactics.

In the history of military science, the application of linear tactics is an important mark of the transition from ancient and medieval tactics to modern tactics.

This is undoubtedly one of his most remarkable achievements.

After a series of economic reforms to provide support, Gustavus Adolphus II embarked on extensive military reforms.

First, he made fundamental changes to the conscription system, replacing the mercenary system, which was popular in Europe at the time, with conscription.

He issued decrees that all men aged 15 to 40 were obligated to serve in the military.

To improve the combat readiness of his soldiers, he devoted considerable energy to repeatedly training them and disciplined them with strict military rules.

This objectively ensured the combat quality and discipline of the Swedish army, and the soldiers also developed a strong emotional bond with Gustavus through their daily interactions.

Secondly, he strengthened the effectiveness and quality of weapons and equipment.

Gustavus placed particular emphasis on improving the performance of firearms in weapon innovation.

He worked to enhance the rate of fire and firepower of muskets, converting more pikemen into musketeers, thereby improving the firepower and flexibility of the entire infantry formation.

In addition, he also greatly emphasized the significance of artillery in warfare.

He reduced the weight of cannons, increased their mobility in the field, established specialized artillery units, and trained professional artillery troops.

He also improved cannon types, rate of fire, and reloading, and integrated light cannons into infantry lines to enhance firepower output.

Under Gustavus's command, artillery transformed from a marginalized auxiliary branch into an independent core branch of the military.

Thirdly, he changed the combat formation of infantry.

Gustavus further reduced the depth of columns based on the Mauricean formation, extending the lines horizontally.

The premise for this was the improvement in musket firing accuracy and speed.

The extended lines could greatly increase the density of volleys and pose a fire threat to the enemy's flanks, which gave them a significant advantage over the old Spanish tercio formation.

After a series of military reforms, the Swedish army appeared among the European powers in a new light and demonstrated great power in subsequent wars.

Sweden's military reforms were all-encompassing, ushering in a new era of modern warfare.

In addition to his exceptional military talent, Gustavus Adolphus II also possessed immense charisma.

On the battlefield, he led by example, fought bravely, and was close to his officers and soldiers, earning their deep love and respect.

He was skilled at recognizing and utilizing talent, disdaining military bureaucrats in offices, but absolutely promoting brave and truly capable soldiers beyond their rank, regardless of their background or status, granting them titles and peerages, which attracted the loyalty of a large number of genuinely talented generals.

His policy of religious tolerance and his fair stance in diplomacy brought a completely different feeling to the princes who had long been intimidated and threatened by the Emperor.

Not only Protestant princes, but even some Catholic princes allied with him.

Of course, no one is perfect, and it is impossible to say that Gustavus Adolphus II had no shortcomings or mistakes.

For example, he intensified conflicts with Poland and Denmark, and although he achieved the status of a great power, he lacked the corresponding human and financial resources to sustain it long-term.

But those are matters for later discussion, and even so, Sweden leaped from a small frontier country to a great power and remained strong for a century.

To criticize these minor shortcomings compared to his achievements from a God's-eye view would be somewhat harsh.

At this time, Gustavus Adolphus II was only 9 years old, and the prelude to Sweden becoming a great power had not yet begun.

How it would develop in the future, and what variables there would be, all remained unknown.